Essentials of Criminal Justice - 6e - c 06, Angielskie [EN](4)(2)
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C
HAPTER
6
162
THE POLICE AND LAW ENFORCEMENT
The Police: Role
and Function
Chapter Outline
The Police Organization
Pros and Cons of Police Organization
Improving Investigation with Technology
Improving Investigations with Forensic
Science
The Police Role
The Patrol Function
Patrol Activities
Does Patrol Deter Crime?
Community Policing
Implementing Community Policing
Changing The Police Role
Problem-Oriented Policing
Challenges of Community Policing
Overcoming Obstacles
The Investigation Function
How Do Detectives Detect?
Sting Operations
Evaluating Investigations
Support Functions
162
53247_06_Ch06_p162-193 pp4.indd 162
11/14/07 12:41:23 AM
163
POLICE IN SOCIETY: HISTORY AND ORGANIZATION
Learning Objectives
1. Understand the organization of police
departments
2. Articulate the complexities of the police
role
3. Discuss the concept of patrol and its
effectiveness
4. Be familiar with aggressive and targeted
policing
5. Be able to discuss the organization of
police detectives
6. Know what forensics is and what foren-
sic experts do for police agencies
7. Define the term “broken windows”
8. Understand the concept of community
policing
9. Discuss the concept of problem-oriented
policing
10. Be familiar with the various police
support functions
Key Themes
The police role is much more varied than
what is portrayed in the media. Although
police are “crime fighters,” they also
engage in numerous other tasks rang-
ing from keeping the peace to providing
emergency medical service.
Early studies questioned the effectiveness
of police patrol, but improvements have
been made. Aggressive patrol, targeting
specific crimes, and using technology
have improved patrol effectiveness.
Investigations have also benefited from
the use of technology and the availability
of forensics.
To improve services and develop com-
munity support, police departments have
developed community policing and
problem-oriented policing models.
Police departments are undergoing a
revolution in their goals and values as
community policing efforts evolve.
COBL
Profile
L
EE LIBBY began his police career in
Seattle in July 1970. It was a spontaneous
career choice: He had not planned on
becoming a police officer, but with a pregnant
wife and little money, it seemed an ideal situa-
tion. He soon realized that he had made a wise
career choice. Libby found policing to be
physically and intellectually challenging and
immensely rewarding in terms of personal
accomplishment. He found himself surrounded
by some of the finest men and women he had
ever known, both personally and professionally.
163
53247_06_Ch06_p162-193 pp4.indd 163
11/14/07 12:41:26 AM
164
PART 2
THE POLICE AND LAW ENFORCEMENT
Libby worked in a wide variety of assignments,
including uniformed and plainclothes assignments and
after being promoted worked in various uniformed and
administrative capacities from patrol to crime prevention
to sexual assault crimes. The job exposed him to experi-
ences he never thought possible, such as meeting up
with serial killer Ted Bundy. His assignments were varied
and changed with promotions and reassignments. As a
sergeant in the Crime Prevention Division, he spent time
directing the activities of both sworn and civilian person-
nel who devoted themselves to reducing the opportunity
for crime to occur. Then as a detective sergeant in the
Special Assault Unit, he was forced to deal with the con-
sequences of some of the most horrible violent crimes
that can be imagined. Libby believes that his greatest
challenge as a police officer was not to let his identity
be defined by his occupation—in other words, rather
than believe, “I
am
a police officer,” he wanted to feel,
“I work as a police officer.” Officers who were able to
maintain their own identity were well balanced and had a
better mental approach both to policing and to their lives
away from policing. Libby retired from policing at the
rank of detective sergeant and became a professor of
criminal justice at Washington’s Shoreline Community
College.
As Lee Libby’s career suggests, the police role, while rewarding, is extremely
varied and complex. Officers are asked to serve as enforcers of the law in sub-
urban communities, rural towns, and some of the toughest urban streets in
America. While rural/suburban police tend to be generalists who focus on
social problems ranging from public disorder to family dysfunction, urban
police must confront heavily armed drug-dealing gangs on a regular basis.
1
In
both instances, the public demands that the police “make them feel safe” and
lose confidence in them if they fear crime in the streets.
2
Yet, these same offi-
cers who are called upon to allay the public’s fears are criticized when their
tactics become too aggressive when they confront angry demonstrators with a
show of force or use interrogation tactics that are considered abusive.
This chapter describes the organization of police departments and their
various operating branches: patrol, investigation, service, and administration.
It discusses the realities and ambiguities of the police role and how the con-
cept of the police mission has been changing radically. The chapter concludes
with a brief overview of some of the most important administrative issues
confronting today’s U.S. law enforcement agencies.
THE POLICE ORGANIZATION
Most municipal police departments in the United States are independent
agencies within the executive branch of government, operating without spe-
cific administrative control from any higher governmental authority. Though
they often cooperate and participate in mutually beneficial enterprises, such
53247_06_Ch06_p162-193 pp4.indd 164
11/14/07 12:41:26 AM
165
CHAPTER 6
THE POLICE: ROLE AND FUNCTION
Planning and research
Crime mapping
Program evaluation
Civilian advisory
board
Chief of police
Assistant chief
Personnel
Affirmative action officer
Recruitment and promotion
Internal affairs
Trial board
Equipment
Repairs
Stations, grounds
Uniforms
Squad cars
Computers
Chief clerk
Payroll
Property
Supplies
Purchasing
Printing
Statistics
Budget and
finance
Special services
Ambulance
Records,
communications
Morgue
Radio
Psychologist
Computer
programmer
Court liaison
Lockup
Criminal analyst
Crime mapping
Training
Academy
In-service
Pistol range
Physical fitness
Stress-control
programs
Vice
Gambling
Liquor
Prostitution
Obscenity
Detectives
Burglary
Felony theft
(bad scams)
Homicide
Robbery
Special
victims
Fugitives
Autos
Narcotics
Major case
Patrol
1st district
2nd district
3rd district
4th district
Foot patrol
Canine
corps
SWAT
(Special
Weapons
and Tactics)
Community
police unit
Neighborhood
newsletter
Ministations
Station 1
Station 2
Station 3
Community
coordinating
council liaison
Traffic
Control
Accidents
Public
vehicles
Violator's
school
Prevention
Community
relations
Athletic
league
Project
DARE
Officer
Friendly
Juveniles
Detectives
Juvenile
court
prosecutor
School
liaison
Gang
control unit
Figure
1.1
Organization of a Traditional Metropolitan Police Department
as a joint task force with state and federal law enforcement agencies, local
police agencies are functionally independent organizations with unique sets of
rules, policies, procedures, norms, budgets, and so on.
Most local police departments are organized in a hierarchical manner, as
illustrated in Figure 6.1. Within this organizational model, each element of the
department normally has its own chain of command. In a large municipal
department, there may be a number of independent investigation units headed
by a captain who serves as the senior administrator, a lieutenant who oversees
cases and investigations and acts as liaison with other police agencies, and
sergeants and inspectors who carry out field work. Smaller departments may
have a captain or lieutenant as head of a particular branch or unit. Depart-
ment size also determines the number of subunits. A department the size of
New York’s may contain several specialized investigative units such as special
victims or sex crimes, while many smaller departments do not employ detec-
tives at all and rely on county or state police investigators to probe unsolved
crimes. Regardless of its size, at the head of the organization is the
police
chief
, who sets policy and has general administrative control over all the
department’s various operating branches.
police chief
The top adminis-
trator of the police department,
who sets policy and has general
control over departmental poli-
cies and practices. The chief is
typically a political rather than
civil service appointee and
serves at the pleasure of the
mayor.
53247_06_Ch06_p162-193 pp4.indd 165
11/14/07 12:41:26 AM
166
PART 2
THE POLICE AND LAW ENFORCEMENT
Pros and Cons of Police Organization
Police administrative organization has both its pros and cons. Because most
departments are civil service organizations, administrators must rise through
the ranks to get to command positions. To be promoted, they must pass a bat-
tery of tests, profiles, interviews, and so on. Most police departments employ
a
time-in-rank system
for determining promotion eligibility. This means that
before moving up the administrative ladder, an officer must spend a certain
amount of time in the next lowest rank; a sergeant cannot become a captain
without serving an appropriate amount of time as a lieutenant. This system
has both benefits and shortcomings: On the plus side, it is designed to pro-
mote stability and fairness and limit favoritism. The chief’s favorite cannot be
promoted over a more experienced officer who is better qualified. Once
earned, a rank can rarely be taken away or changed if new management takes
over. The rank system also protects police agencies from losing talented offi-
cers trained at public expense to other departments who offer more money or
other incentives.
On the downside, the rank system restricts administrative flexibility.
Unlike in the private sector, where talented people can be pushed ahead in the
best interests of the company, the time-in-rank system prohibits rapid advance-
ment. A police agency would probably not be able to hire a computer systems
expert with a Ph.D. and give her a command position in charge of its data-
analysis section. The department would be forced to hire the expert as a civil-
ian employee under the command of a ranking senior officer who may not be
as technically proficient. Because senior administrators are promoted from
within only after years of loyal service, time-in-rank may render some police
agencies administratively conservative. Even when police executives adopt
new programs, such as COMPSTAT (see later in this chapter for more on
COMPSTAT), they are most likely to choose those elements that confer legiti-
macy on existing organizations, and on implementing them in ways that
minimize disruption to existing organizational routines, rather than embrace
new and truly innovative changes.
3
The
National
Association of
Police Organizations
(NAPO)
, a coalition
of police unions
and associations from across the
United States, serves to advance
the interests of America’s law
enforcement officers through legis-
lative and legal advocacy, political
action, and education. Visit their
site via academic.cengage.com/
criminaljustice/siegel.
THE POLICE ROLE
In countless books, movies, and TV shows, the public has been presented with
a view of policing that romanticizes police officers as fearless crime fighters
who think little of their own safety as they engage in daily shootouts. How
close is this portrayal of a crime fighter to real life? Not very close, according
to most research efforts. A police officer’s crime-fighting efforts are only a
small part of his or her overall activities. Studies of police work indicate that
a significant portion of an officer’s time is spent handling minor disturbances,
service calls, and administrative duties. Police work, then, involves much
more than catching criminals. The most recent national survey of police con-
tacts with civilians (2005) found that almost 44 million persons had at least
one contact with police that year.
4
More than half of the contacts are for traffic-related matters, and about 30
percent were to report problems or ask for assistance—for example, respond-
ing to a neighbor’s complaint about music being too loud during a party, or
warning kids not to shoot fireworks. This survey indicates that the police role
is both varied and complex. These results are not surprising when Uniform
Crime Report (UCR) arrest data is considered. Each year, about 700,000 local,
county, and state police officers make about 14 million arrests, or about 20
each. Of these, about 2 million are for serious Part I crimes, or about 3 per
officer. Given an even distribution of arrests, it is evident that the average
time-in-rank system
For police
officers to advance in rank they
must spend an appropriate
amount of time, usually years,
in the preceding rank—that is,
to become a captain, an officer
must first spend time as a
lieutenant.
53247_06_Ch06_p162-193 pp4.indd 166
11/14/07 12:41:27 AM
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C
HAPTER
6
162
THE POLICE AND LAW ENFORCEMENT
The Police: Role
and Function
Chapter Outline
The Police Organization
Pros and Cons of Police Organization
Improving Investigation with Technology
Improving Investigations with Forensic
Science
The Police Role
The Patrol Function
Patrol Activities
Does Patrol Deter Crime?
Community Policing
Implementing Community Policing
Changing The Police Role
Problem-Oriented Policing
Challenges of Community Policing
Overcoming Obstacles
The Investigation Function
How Do Detectives Detect?
Sting Operations
Evaluating Investigations
Support Functions
162
53247_06_Ch06_p162-193 pp4.indd 162
11/14/07 12:41:23 AM
163
POLICE IN SOCIETY: HISTORY AND ORGANIZATION
Learning Objectives
1. Understand the organization of police
departments
2. Articulate the complexities of the police
role
3. Discuss the concept of patrol and its
effectiveness
4. Be familiar with aggressive and targeted
policing
5. Be able to discuss the organization of
police detectives
6. Know what forensics is and what foren-
sic experts do for police agencies
7. Define the term “broken windows”
8. Understand the concept of community
policing
9. Discuss the concept of problem-oriented
policing
10. Be familiar with the various police
support functions
Key Themes
The police role is much more varied than
what is portrayed in the media. Although
police are “crime fighters,” they also
engage in numerous other tasks rang-
ing from keeping the peace to providing
emergency medical service.
Early studies questioned the effectiveness
of police patrol, but improvements have
been made. Aggressive patrol, targeting
specific crimes, and using technology
have improved patrol effectiveness.
Investigations have also benefited from
the use of technology and the availability
of forensics.
To improve services and develop com-
munity support, police departments have
developed community policing and
problem-oriented policing models.
Police departments are undergoing a
revolution in their goals and values as
community policing efforts evolve.
COBL
Profile
L
EE LIBBY began his police career in
Seattle in July 1970. It was a spontaneous
career choice: He had not planned on
becoming a police officer, but with a pregnant
wife and little money, it seemed an ideal situa-
tion. He soon realized that he had made a wise
career choice. Libby found policing to be
physically and intellectually challenging and
immensely rewarding in terms of personal
accomplishment. He found himself surrounded
by some of the finest men and women he had
ever known, both personally and professionally.
163
53247_06_Ch06_p162-193 pp4.indd 163
11/14/07 12:41:26 AM
164
PART 2
THE POLICE AND LAW ENFORCEMENT
Libby worked in a wide variety of assignments,
including uniformed and plainclothes assignments and
after being promoted worked in various uniformed and
administrative capacities from patrol to crime prevention
to sexual assault crimes. The job exposed him to experi-
ences he never thought possible, such as meeting up
with serial killer Ted Bundy. His assignments were varied
and changed with promotions and reassignments. As a
sergeant in the Crime Prevention Division, he spent time
directing the activities of both sworn and civilian person-
nel who devoted themselves to reducing the opportunity
for crime to occur. Then as a detective sergeant in the
Special Assault Unit, he was forced to deal with the con-
sequences of some of the most horrible violent crimes
that can be imagined. Libby believes that his greatest
challenge as a police officer was not to let his identity
be defined by his occupation—in other words, rather
than believe, “I
am
a police officer,” he wanted to feel,
“I work as a police officer.” Officers who were able to
maintain their own identity were well balanced and had a
better mental approach both to policing and to their lives
away from policing. Libby retired from policing at the
rank of detective sergeant and became a professor of
criminal justice at Washington’s Shoreline Community
College.
As Lee Libby’s career suggests, the police role, while rewarding, is extremely
varied and complex. Officers are asked to serve as enforcers of the law in sub-
urban communities, rural towns, and some of the toughest urban streets in
America. While rural/suburban police tend to be generalists who focus on
social problems ranging from public disorder to family dysfunction, urban
police must confront heavily armed drug-dealing gangs on a regular basis.
1
In
both instances, the public demands that the police “make them feel safe” and
lose confidence in them if they fear crime in the streets.
2
Yet, these same offi-
cers who are called upon to allay the public’s fears are criticized when their
tactics become too aggressive when they confront angry demonstrators with a
show of force or use interrogation tactics that are considered abusive.
This chapter describes the organization of police departments and their
various operating branches: patrol, investigation, service, and administration.
It discusses the realities and ambiguities of the police role and how the con-
cept of the police mission has been changing radically. The chapter concludes
with a brief overview of some of the most important administrative issues
confronting today’s U.S. law enforcement agencies.
THE POLICE ORGANIZATION
Most municipal police departments in the United States are independent
agencies within the executive branch of government, operating without spe-
cific administrative control from any higher governmental authority. Though
they often cooperate and participate in mutually beneficial enterprises, such
53247_06_Ch06_p162-193 pp4.indd 164
11/14/07 12:41:26 AM
165
CHAPTER 6
THE POLICE: ROLE AND FUNCTION
Planning and research
Crime mapping
Program evaluation
Civilian advisory
board
Chief of police
Assistant chief
Personnel
Affirmative action officer
Recruitment and promotion
Internal affairs
Trial board
Equipment
Repairs
Stations, grounds
Uniforms
Squad cars
Computers
Chief clerk
Payroll
Property
Supplies
Purchasing
Printing
Statistics
Budget and
finance
Special services
Ambulance
Records,
communications
Morgue
Radio
Psychologist
Computer
programmer
Court liaison
Lockup
Criminal analyst
Crime mapping
Training
Academy
In-service
Pistol range
Physical fitness
Stress-control
programs
Vice
Gambling
Liquor
Prostitution
Obscenity
Detectives
Burglary
Felony theft
(bad scams)
Homicide
Robbery
Special
victims
Fugitives
Autos
Narcotics
Major case
Patrol
1st district
2nd district
3rd district
4th district
Foot patrol
Canine
corps
SWAT
(Special
Weapons
and Tactics)
Community
police unit
Neighborhood
newsletter
Ministations
Station 1
Station 2
Station 3
Community
coordinating
council liaison
Traffic
Control
Accidents
Public
vehicles
Violator's
school
Prevention
Community
relations
Athletic
league
Project
DARE
Officer
Friendly
Juveniles
Detectives
Juvenile
court
prosecutor
School
liaison
Gang
control unit
Figure
1.1
Organization of a Traditional Metropolitan Police Department
as a joint task force with state and federal law enforcement agencies, local
police agencies are functionally independent organizations with unique sets of
rules, policies, procedures, norms, budgets, and so on.
Most local police departments are organized in a hierarchical manner, as
illustrated in Figure 6.1. Within this organizational model, each element of the
department normally has its own chain of command. In a large municipal
department, there may be a number of independent investigation units headed
by a captain who serves as the senior administrator, a lieutenant who oversees
cases and investigations and acts as liaison with other police agencies, and
sergeants and inspectors who carry out field work. Smaller departments may
have a captain or lieutenant as head of a particular branch or unit. Depart-
ment size also determines the number of subunits. A department the size of
New York’s may contain several specialized investigative units such as special
victims or sex crimes, while many smaller departments do not employ detec-
tives at all and rely on county or state police investigators to probe unsolved
crimes. Regardless of its size, at the head of the organization is the
police
chief
, who sets policy and has general administrative control over all the
department’s various operating branches.
police chief
The top adminis-
trator of the police department,
who sets policy and has general
control over departmental poli-
cies and practices. The chief is
typically a political rather than
civil service appointee and
serves at the pleasure of the
mayor.
53247_06_Ch06_p162-193 pp4.indd 165
11/14/07 12:41:26 AM
166
PART 2
THE POLICE AND LAW ENFORCEMENT
Pros and Cons of Police Organization
Police administrative organization has both its pros and cons. Because most
departments are civil service organizations, administrators must rise through
the ranks to get to command positions. To be promoted, they must pass a bat-
tery of tests, profiles, interviews, and so on. Most police departments employ
a
time-in-rank system
for determining promotion eligibility. This means that
before moving up the administrative ladder, an officer must spend a certain
amount of time in the next lowest rank; a sergeant cannot become a captain
without serving an appropriate amount of time as a lieutenant. This system
has both benefits and shortcomings: On the plus side, it is designed to pro-
mote stability and fairness and limit favoritism. The chief’s favorite cannot be
promoted over a more experienced officer who is better qualified. Once
earned, a rank can rarely be taken away or changed if new management takes
over. The rank system also protects police agencies from losing talented offi-
cers trained at public expense to other departments who offer more money or
other incentives.
On the downside, the rank system restricts administrative flexibility.
Unlike in the private sector, where talented people can be pushed ahead in the
best interests of the company, the time-in-rank system prohibits rapid advance-
ment. A police agency would probably not be able to hire a computer systems
expert with a Ph.D. and give her a command position in charge of its data-
analysis section. The department would be forced to hire the expert as a civil-
ian employee under the command of a ranking senior officer who may not be
as technically proficient. Because senior administrators are promoted from
within only after years of loyal service, time-in-rank may render some police
agencies administratively conservative. Even when police executives adopt
new programs, such as COMPSTAT (see later in this chapter for more on
COMPSTAT), they are most likely to choose those elements that confer legiti-
macy on existing organizations, and on implementing them in ways that
minimize disruption to existing organizational routines, rather than embrace
new and truly innovative changes.
3
The
National
Association of
Police Organizations
(NAPO)
, a coalition
of police unions
and associations from across the
United States, serves to advance
the interests of America’s law
enforcement officers through legis-
lative and legal advocacy, political
action, and education. Visit their
site via academic.cengage.com/
criminaljustice/siegel.
THE POLICE ROLE
In countless books, movies, and TV shows, the public has been presented with
a view of policing that romanticizes police officers as fearless crime fighters
who think little of their own safety as they engage in daily shootouts. How
close is this portrayal of a crime fighter to real life? Not very close, according
to most research efforts. A police officer’s crime-fighting efforts are only a
small part of his or her overall activities. Studies of police work indicate that
a significant portion of an officer’s time is spent handling minor disturbances,
service calls, and administrative duties. Police work, then, involves much
more than catching criminals. The most recent national survey of police con-
tacts with civilians (2005) found that almost 44 million persons had at least
one contact with police that year.
4
More than half of the contacts are for traffic-related matters, and about 30
percent were to report problems or ask for assistance—for example, respond-
ing to a neighbor’s complaint about music being too loud during a party, or
warning kids not to shoot fireworks. This survey indicates that the police role
is both varied and complex. These results are not surprising when Uniform
Crime Report (UCR) arrest data is considered. Each year, about 700,000 local,
county, and state police officers make about 14 million arrests, or about 20
each. Of these, about 2 million are for serious Part I crimes, or about 3 per
officer. Given an even distribution of arrests, it is evident that the average
time-in-rank system
For police
officers to advance in rank they
must spend an appropriate
amount of time, usually years,
in the preceding rank—that is,
to become a captain, an officer
must first spend time as a
lieutenant.
53247_06_Ch06_p162-193 pp4.indd 166
11/14/07 12:41:27 AM
[ Pobierz całość w formacie PDF ]